CHAPTER II

                                                         CHAPTER II                                                        

                                     REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter deals with review of literature they are the definition of writing, genres in writing, designing writing tasks, approaches to students writing included process and product, genre, creative writing, and writing as cooperative activity, the PPP method, and previous study.

2.1 The definition of writing

Heffernan and Lincoln (1982:3) in Sulistiawati (2006:7) said that writing is a means of communications we must consciously learn. But writing does have one big advantage over speaking. It gives us time to think, to try out our ideas on paper, to choose our words, to read what we have written, to rethink, to revise, and rearrange it, and most importantly, to consider its effect on a reader. Writing give us time to find the best possible way of stating what we mean.

In other hand, writing is a form of thinking, it is thinking for a particular audience, and for a particular occasion (Angelo, 1980:5). It showed that writing one way to implement our ideas. In other hand, writing is way to communicate what we are thinking.

West (1973) said that writing is involved not only in the finished product of many industries but also all along the way in the production process. In the Islamic world, writing was so important that it was used not only to communicate, but also to decorate buildings, household objects, even more.  In relation with definition above, the writers has concludes that writing is the ability of expressing thoughts, thinking, and feeling. Besides that, writing is the use of language for expression and communication.

In this case, according to West (1973) there are five steps in writing process such as; prewriting, composing, editing, proofreading, and sharing. The definitions are as follows; Prewriting is one the first step to help us arranged the idea that we would to write. It is time to think about what you want to communicate or about the assignment you’ve been given. The second step is composing, composing means actually writing the rough draft. If you built an outline during the prewriting process, you are off to get start. The third step is editing, editing means going over the rough draft, reworking the words, phrases, and sentences, and pulling the writer’s idea into the best and most effective shape possible. Proofreading comes as the last step in the composing process. When we are proofread, we put the final polish on our product by checking for such mechanical errors as capitalization, punctuation, usage, manuscript form, and other convention. Sharing in this case sharing is one of the ways to correct our product with another writer or your teacher. One audience is your English teacher, who brings to your writing special background, skills and experience.

Then, to make a post it should pay attention to the process of writing itself. As already mentioned above there are some processes of writing such as prewriting, composing, editing, proofreading, sharing. Several kinds of process writing which has been mentioned above, it also help the writer expressing ideas they will write.

2.2 Genres in Writing

            Genre is different with text type, there are still several people who cannot differ between genre and text type. Actually, there are ways in which the relationship between genres and text types may be exploited in the language learning classroom.

Based on Paltridge (1996: 237), the term ‘genre’ categorizes text on the basis of external criteria, while ‘text types’ represent grouping of texts which are similar in linguistic form, irrespective of genre. Thus the term ‘genre’ describes types of activities such as, for example, prayers, sermons, songs, and poems, ‘which regularly occur in society’ and ‘are considered by the speech community as being of the same type’. Text types, on the other hand, represent grouping of texts which are similar in terms of co-occurrence of linguistic patterns.

            Pedagogic applications of the results of genre analyses seem to be based on the notion of ‘text type’ rather than ‘genre’. This is the case in the work of Hammond, J., A. Burns, H. Joyce, D. Brosnan, and L. Gerot (in Paltridge, 1996: 238) who in a work focusing on adult second language literacy development, list as genre categories anecdotes, descriptions, expositions, news items, procedures, recounts, reports, and reviews. An examination of the written text presented in Hammond et al., however, reveals that these texts may be viewed from another perspective as well; that is, one which identifies the genre and text type category membership of the genres.

Table 2.1: Example of genres and text types

Genre	Text Types
Recipe Personal Letter Advertisement Police Report Student essay Formal letter Formal letter News item Health brochure Student assignment Biology textbook Film review	Procedure Anecdote Description Description Exposition Exposition Problem-Solution Recount Procedure Recount Report Review

(Source: based on Hammond et al. as cited in Paltridge, 1996: 239)

            It is clear from this analysis based on table 2.1 that more than one genre may share the same type. That is, genre of advertisement and police reports may both share the type of description. Equally, a single genre, such as formal letters is included in exposition or problem-solution. In this study researcher concern with writing a descriptive text because based on the syllabus (see appendix 2a) which used in the senior high school as the subject of study.

According to (Wishon&Burks,1980: 379) description reproduces the way thinks look, smell, taste, feel, or sound; it may also evoke moods, such as happiness, loneliness, or fear. It may be used also to describe more than the outward appearance of people. It may tell about their traits of character personality.

2.3 Designing Writing Tasks

Nation and Newton (2009:95) said that to know the improvement of students writing, the teacher should get them to work on writing tasks. There are four types of writing tasks, they are: experience tasks, share tasks, guided tasks, and Independent tasks.  Those are as follows;

First type is experience tasks, when the students assign the task based on topic that they have already known. The teacher stimulates the students by giving oral questions about the topic. Then, students write down the ideas into paper. Next type is shared tasks, when the students produce writing with group. They help each other to plan and produce the piece of writing. Doing tasks with group is easier than working alone.

The third is guided tasks. The teacher gives a guided composition task such us series picture with guided questions and useful language items.

The last is independent task. The teacher asks student to compose writing individually by giving a topic.

2.4 Approaches to Students Writing

According to Harmer (2007:352) there are number of different approaches to the practice of writing skill both in and outside the classroom. The different are as follows ;

2.4.1 Process and Product

Harmer (2007:325) said that in the teaching of writing we can either focus on the product of that writing or on the writing process itself. When concentrating on the product, we are only interested in the aim of tasks and in the end product. It showed that the process of writing not only see the product but also see how the process of writing tasks.

Tribble ( 1996: 37- 39) suggest that in reality, the writing process is more complex than this, of course, and the various stage of drafting, reviewing, re- drafting and writing, etc. Thus at the editing stage we may feel the need to go back to a pre- writing phase and think again; we may edits bits of our writing as we draft it. However, the process of writing is more complicated the process is important in do writing. The writing process is at least as important as the product, and even in exam writing tasks, the students’ ability to plan and later read back through what they have written in order to make any necessary corrections is extremely important.

2.4.2 Genre

Harmer (2007: 327) when teacher concentrate on genre, students study texts in the genre which they are going to be writing before they embark on their own work. Thus, if we want them to write business letters of various kinds, we let them look at typical models of such a letter before starting to compose their own. Its mean that the guided or the teacher of the student should introduce or explain what kind of genre itself, such as descriptive, narrative, recount and etc. Without knowing about genres the students will be difficult to make writing tasks.

2.4.3 Creative Writing

Ur (1996; 169) suggest that chief among these is that the end result is often felt to be some kind of achievement and that’ most of people fell pride in their work and want it to be read. Its mean that the term creative writing suggests imaginative writing poetry, stories and plays, such activities have a number of features to recommended them.

Vile (1998:31) creative writing is a journey of self- discovery, and self- discovery promotes effective learning. When teacher set up imaginative writing tasks so that their students are thoroughly engaged, those students frequently strive harder than usual to produce a greater variety of correct and appropriate language than they might for more routine assignments.

2.4.4 Writing as a Cooperative Activity

Hammer (2007: 328- 329) Cooperative writing works well whether the focus is on the writing process or, alternatively, on genre study. In the first case, reviewing and evaluation are greatly enhanced by having than one person working on text, and the generation of ideas is frequently more lively with two or more people involved than it is when writers work on their own. As like in this study the researcher use pair work to do this writing test, it shows that this approach appropriate for doing in this learning process. It means that the learning process use step by step.

Harmer (2007; 329) said that cooperative writing is immensely successful if students are writing on a computer. If the screen is big enough, everyone can make small changes both during the initial writing process and also later on. Its mean that the students can interact each other by using some social media. As we know writing not only in the book but also in social media such as email, blogger, face book, and etc. It showed that in the modern era the cooperative of writing are more develop.

2.5 The PPP Method            

Nunan (2008) said that PPP method is relatively straight forward, and structured enough to be easily understood by both students and new or new emerging teachers. Presentation, Practice and Production, or PPP as it is called, is one of the most common teaching methodologies for ESL. Presentation is presenting the current language lesson to the student. Depending on the curriculum chosen, this could be such subjects as sounds, parts of speech, vocabulary, sentence structure and grammar. Generally between 65 and 90 percent of class time is spent on the Presentation component. Next the students will Practice what they are learning through activities that require them to speak English. Practice exercises should progress toward mastery of the concepts presented. The final component is Production, which is an advanced form of Practice that requires students to think on their own rather than completing the more closely targeted Practice exercises. The steps are generally sequential, progressing from little student involvement to maximum student involvement. Beginning teachers often have success using the PPP methodology.

Solikhuddin (2011) there are some advantages of PPP method such as PPP method not only for the students, but also were the advantage for teachers. One of advantages were the teacher had to design lesson plan to get right action in teaching of English especially in writing skill. 

 In other hand, the researcher would modifications the steps based on the originally steps, the modification special for writing skill. The first step is called presentation in this case the presentation the teacher give explanation about the material in detail. The second step is called practice, practice in this case the students did the tasks which the teacher still help the students. For example, the teacher give the text to the students, the student should identify the language feature and generic structure for the text. And the last steps is production, in this case the students should make writing paragraph or essay by their own word.

Harmer (2007) said that the PPP procedure, which has offered to teacher trainees as a significant teaching procedure from the middle of the 1960s onwards (though not then referred as PPP), came under a sustained attack in the 1990s. It was, critics argued, clearly teacher- centered (at least in the kind of procedure which we have demonstrated), and therefore sits uneasily in a more humanistic and learner- centered framework. It also seems to assume that students learn in straight line that is starting from no knowledge, through highly restricted sentence- based utterances and on to immediate production.

2.5 Previous study

The researcher had search for some literature and studies conducted prior to support the strategy used. Those study to support the investigation that will be conducted. It is taken from previous studies researchers. Those are as follows:

This study conducted by MochammadSolikhuddin (2006).” Improving Students’ Speaking Competence by Using PPP (Presentation, Practice, and Production) at The Second Grade students of MtsMiftahul Huda ledugPrigen- Pasuruan”.Problem of the study based on the background of the study, the researcher formulates the problem as follow,” how can PPP improve speaking at the second grade students of MtsMiftahulhudaledugPrigen – Pasuruan?”.

The different between previous and now are the use of PPP method is used to for speaking skill. The level of students in the previous is use junior high school and now use senior high school. Both previous and present researcher used the methods the methods is PPP (presentation, practice, production). Both previous and presents use in one cycle for did the research. The previous did in five meeting in I cycle, and the presents did four meetings in I cycle. In the previous the mean score of the result of test was 70.54. So, the previous got successfully in one cycle. In the previous the researcher used group for did the test, but in present study the researcher used pair to do the test.